Agbonlahor, O., DeJarnett, N., Hart, J. L., Bhatnagar, A., McLeish, A. C., & Walker, K. L. (2024). Racial/Ethnic discrimination and cardiometabolic diseases: A systematic review. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 11(2), 783–807. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01561-1
Allen, A. M., Thomas, M. D., Michaels, E. K., Reeves, A. N., Okoye, U., Price, M. M., Hasson, R. E., Syme, S. L., & Chae, D. H. (2019). Racial discrimination, educational attainment, and biological dysregulation among midlife African American women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 99, 225–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.09.001
Allen, A. M., Wang, Y., Chae, D. H., Price, M. M., Powell, W., Steed, T. C., Rose Black, A., Dhabhar, F. S., Marquez‐Magaña, L., & Woods‐Giscombe, C. L. (2019). Racial discrimination, the superwoman schema, and allostatic load: Exploring an integrative stress‐coping model among African American women. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1457(1), 104–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14188
Artiga, S., Hamel, L., Gonzalez-Barrera, A., Montero, A., Hill, L., Presiado, M., Kirzinger, A., & Lopes, L. (2023, December 5). Survey on Racism, Discrimination and Health. KFF. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/poll-finding/survey-on-racism-discrimination-and-health/
Bastos, J. L., & Harnois, C. E. (2020). Does the Everyday Discrimination Scale generate meaningful cross-group estimates? A psychometric evaluation. Social Science & Medicine, 265(113321). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113321
Beldon, M. A., Clay, S. L., Uhr, S. D., Woolfolk, C. L., & Canton, I. J. (2024). Exposure to racism and adverse pregnancy outcomes for Black women: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-024-01641-2
Berger, M., & Sarnyai, Z. (2014). “More than skin deep”: Stress neurobiology and mental health consequences of racial discrimination. Stress, 18(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2014.989204
Bernardo, C. de O., Bastos, J. L., González-Chica, D. A., Peres, M. A., & Paradies, Y. C. (2017). Interpersonal discrimination and markers of adiposity in longitudinal studies: A systematic review. Obesity Reviews, 18(9), 1040–1049. https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12564
Bird, C. M., Webb, E. K., Schramm, A. T., Torres, L., Larson, C., & deRoon ‐Cassini, T. A. (2021). Racial Discrimination is associated with acute posttraumatic stress symptoms and predicts future posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity in trauma‐exposed Black adults in the United States. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 34(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22670
Boen, C. (2019). Death by a thousand cuts: Stress exposure and Black–White disparities in physiological functioning in late life. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 75(9), 1937–1950. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbz068
Boyd, D. T., Quinn, C. R., Durkee, M. I., Williams, E.-D. G., Constant, A., Washington, D., Butler-Barnes, S. T., & Ewing, A. P. (2024). Perceived discrimination, mental health help-seeking attitudes, and suicide ideation, planning, and attempts among black young adults. BMC Public Health, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19519-1
Brody, G. H., Lei, M.-K., Chae, D. H., Yu, T., Kogan, S. M., & Beach, S. R. H. (2014). Perceived discrimination among African American adolescents and allostatic load: A longitudinal analysis with buffering effects. Child Development, 85(3), 989–1002. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12213
Cahill, M., Illback, R., & Peiper, N. (2024). Perceived racial discrimination, psychological distress, and suicidal behavior in adolescence: Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data from a statewide youth survey. Healthcare, 12(10), 1011. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12101011
Carliner, H., Delker, E., Fink, D. S., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2016). Racial discrimination, socioeconomic position, and illicit drug use among US Blacks. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(4), 551–560. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1174-y
Cave, L., Cooper, M. N., Zubrick, S. R., & Shepherd, C. C. J. (2020). Racial discrimination and child and adolescent health in longitudinal studies: a systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 250(112864), 112864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112864
Chae, D. H., Martz, C. D., Fuller-Rowell, T. E., Spears, E. C., Smith, T. T. G., Hunter, E. A., Drenkard, C., & Lim, S. S. (2019). Racial discrimination, disease activity, and organ damage: The Black women’s experiences living with lupus (BeWELL) study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 188(8). https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwz105
Chae, D. H., Wang, Y., Martz, C. D., Slopen, N., Yip, T., Adler, N. E., Fuller-Rowell, T. E., Lin, J., Matthews, K. A., Brody, G. H., Spears, E. C., Puterman, E., & Epel, E. S. (2020). Racial discrimination and telomere shortening among African Americans: The coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Health Psychology, 39(3), 209–219. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000832
Chen, S., & Mallory, A. B. (2021). The effect of racial discrimination on mental and physical health: A propensity score weighting approach. Social Science & Medicine, 285(114308). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114308
Cheng, H.-L., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2015). Racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and alcohol problems in a longitudinal study of Hispanic/Latino college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(1), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000052
Cheng, P., Cuellar, R., Johnson, D. A., Kalmbach, D. A., Joseph, C. L., Cuamatzi Castelan, A., Sagong, C., Casement, M. D., & Drake, C. L. (2020). Racial discrimination as a mediator of racial disparities in insomnia disorder. Sleep Health, 6(5), 543–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleh.2020.07.007
Cleveland Clinic. (2024, March 22). Inflammation: What is it, causes, symptoms & treatment. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/21660-inflammation
Cobb, R. J., Sheehan, C., Louie, P., & Erving, C. L. (2021). Multiple reasons for perceived everyday discrimination and all-cause mortality risk among older Black adults. The Journals of Gerontology, 77(2), 310–314. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glab281
Cohen, M. F., Corwin, E. J., Johnson, D. A., Amore, A. D., Brown, A. L., Barbee, N. R., Brennan, P. A., & Dunlop, A. L. (2022). Discrimination is associated with poor sleep quality in pregnant Black American women. Sleep Medicine, 100, 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2022.07.015
Cohen, M. F., Dunlop, A. L., Johnson, D. A., Dunn Amore, A., Corwin, E. J., & Brennan, P. A. (2022). Intergenerational effects of discrimination on Black American children’s sleep health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(7), 4021. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19074021
Colten, H. R., Altevogt, B. M., & Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Sleep Medicine and Research. (2006). Extent and health consequences of chronic sleep loss and sleep disorders. NIH.gov; National Academies Press (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK19961/
Cuevas, A. G., Ho, T., Rodgers, J., DeNufrio, D., Alley, L., Allen, J., & Williams, D. R. (2021). Developmental timing of initial racial discrimination exposure is associated with cardiovascular health conditions in adulthood. Ethnicity & Health, 26(7), 949–962. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2019.1613517
Cuevas, A. G., McSorley, A.-M., Adiammi Lyngdoh, Fatoumata Kaba-Diakité, Harris, A., Brennan Rhodes-Bratton, & Rouhani, S. (2024). Education, income, wealth, and discrimination in Black-White allostatic load disparities. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 67(1), 97–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2024.02.021
Cuevas, A. G., Ong, A. D., Carvalho, K., Ho, T., Chan, S. W. (Celine), Allen, J. D., Chen, R., Rodgers, J., Biba, U., & Williams, D. R. (2020). Discrimination and systemic inflammation: A critical review and synthesis. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 89, 465–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.07.017
Fani, N., Carter, S. E., Harnett, N. G., Ressler, K. J., & Bradley, B. (2021). Association of racial discrimination with neural response to threat in Black women in the US exposed to trauma. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(9). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.1480
Fani, N., Harnett, N. G., Bradley, B., Mekawi, Y., Powers, A., Stevens, J. S., Ressler, K. J., & Carter, S. (2021). Racial discrimination and white matter microstructure in trauma-exposed Black women. Biological Psychiatry, 91(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.08.011
Forde, A. T., Crookes, D. M., Suglia, S. F., & Demmer, R. T. (2019). The weathering hypothesis as an explanation for racial disparities in health: A systematic review. Annals of Epidemiology, 33, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2019.02.011
Fuller-Rowell, T. E., Curtis, D. S., El-Sheikh, M., Duke, A. M., Ryff, C. D., & Zgierska, A. E. (2017). Racial discrimination mediates race differences in sleep problems: a longitudinal analysis. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23(2), 165–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000104
Giurgescu, C., Engeland, C. G., Templin, T. N., Zenk, S. N., Koenig, M. D., & Garfield, L. (2016). Racial discrimination predicts greater systemic inflammation in pregnant African American women. Applied Nursing Research: ANR, 32, 98–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnr.2016.06.008
Giurgescu, C., Zenk, S. N., Engeland, C. G., Garfield, L., & Templin, T. N. (2017). Racial discrimination and psychological wellbeing of pregnant women. MCN, the American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing, 42(1), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1097/nmc.0000000000000297
Glass, J. E., Williams, E. C., & Oh, H. (2020). Racial/ethnic discrimination and alcohol use disorder severity among United States adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 216(108203), 108203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.108203
Guidi, J., Lucente, M., Sonino, N., & Fava, Giovanni A. (2020). Allostatic load and its impact on health: A systematic review. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 90(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1159/000510696
Hill, L., & Artiga, S. (2026, June 4). Elimination of federal diversity initiatives: Updates and current status. KFF. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/elimination-of-federal-diversity-initiatives-updates-and-current-status/
Hill, L., Artiga, S., Pillai, A., & Rao, A. (2025, March 21). Elimination of federal diversity initiatives: Implications for racial health equity. KFF. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/elimination-of-federal-diversity-initiatives-implications-for-racial-health-equity/
Hill, L., Rao, A., Artiga, S., & Ranji, U. (2025, December 3). Racial disparities in maternal and infant health: Current status and key issues. KFF. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/racial-disparities-in-maternal-and-infant-health-current-status-and-key-issues/
Johnson, A., Dobbs, P. D., Coleman, L., & Maness, S. (2023). Pregnancy-specific stress and racial discrimination among U.S. women. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 27(2), 328–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-022-03567-3
Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretic framework and a gardener’s tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90(8), 1212–1215. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.90.8.1212
KFF. (2023). How history has shaped racial and ethnic health disparities: A timeline of policies and events. KFF. https://www.kff.org/how-history-has-shaped-racial-and-ethnic-health-disparities-a-timeline-of-policies-and-events/
Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61(7), 1576–1596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.006
Latendresse, G. (2009). The interaction between chronic stress and pregnancy: Preterm birth from a biobehavioral perspective. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health, 54(1), 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmwh.2008.08.001
LaVeist, T. A., Pérez-Stable, E. J., Richard, P., Anderson, A., Isaac, L. A., Santiago, R., Okoh, C., Breen, N., Farhat, T., Assenov, A., & Gaskin, D. J. (2023). The economic burden of racial, ethnic, and educational health inequities in the US. JAMA, 329(19), 1682–1692. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2023.5965
Lavner, J. A., Hart, A. R., Carter, S. E., & Beach, S. R. H. (2022). Longitudinal effects of racial discrimination on depressive symptoms among Black youth: Between- and within-person effects. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 61(1), 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.04.020
Lawrence, W. R., Jones, G. S., Johnson, J. A., Ferrell, K. P., Johnson, J. N., Shiels, M. S., Diez Roux, A. V., & Forde, A. T. (2023). Discrimination experiences and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality: Multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, 16(4). https://doi.org/10.1161/circoutcomes.122.009697
Lewis, T. T., Cogburn, C. D., & Williams, D. R. (2015). Self-reported experiences of discrimination and health: Scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11(1), 407–440. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728
Liu, S. Y., & Kawachi, I. (2017). Discrimination and telomere length among older adults in the United States. Public Health Reports, 132(2), 220–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033354916689613
Mekawi, Y., Hyatt, C. S., Maples-Keller, J., Carter, S., Michopoulos, V., & Powers, A. (2021). Racial discrimination predicts mental health outcomes beyond the role of personality traits in a community sample of African Americans. Clinical Psychological Science, 9(2), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702620957318
Meyer, C. S., Schreiner, P. J., Lim, K., Battapady, H., & Launer, L. J. (2019). Depressive symptomatology, racial discrimination experience, and brain tissue volumes observed on magnetic resonance imaging. American Journal of Epidemiology, 188(4), 656–663. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy282
Miller, H. N., LaFave, S., Marineau, L., Stephens, J., & Thorpe, R. J. (2021). The impact of discrimination on allostatic load in adults: An integrative review of literature. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 146(110434). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110434
Moody, D. L. B., Taylor, A. D., Leibel, D. K., Al-Najjar, E., Katzel, L. I., Davatzikos, C., Gullapalli, R. P., Seliger, S. L., Kouo, T., Erus, G., Rosenberger, W. F., Evans, M. K., Zonderman, A. B., & Waldstein, S. R. (2019). Lifetime discrimination burden, racial discrimination, and subclinical cerebrovascular disease among African Americans. Health Psychology, 38(1), 63. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000638
Ndugga, N., Hill, L., Rao, A., Pillai, A., & Artiga, S. (2025, December 16). Key data on health and health care by race and ethnicity. KFF. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/key-data-on-health-and-health-care-by-race-and-ethnicity/?entry=executive-summary-introduction
Oshri, A., Reck, A. J., Carter, S. E., Uddin, L. Q., Geier, C. F., Beach, S. R. H., Brody, G. H., Kogan, S. M., & Sweet, L. H. (2024). Racial discrimination and risk for internalizing and externalizing symptoms among Black youths. JAMA Network Open, 7(6), e2416491. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.16491
Pacheco, N. L., Noren Hooten, N., Wu, S. F., Mensah‐Bonsu, M., Zhang, Y., Chitrala, K. N., De, S., Mode, N. A., Ezike, N., Beatty Moody, D. L., Zonderman, A. B., & Evans, M. K. (2025). Genome‐wide transcriptome differences associated with perceived discrimination in an urban, community‐dwelling middle‐aged cohort. The FASEB Journal, 39(3). https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.202402000r
Pantesco, E. J., Leibel, D. K., Ashe, J. J., Waldstein, S. R., Katzel, L. I., Liu, H. B., Weng, N., Evans, M. K., Zonderman, A. B., & Beatty Moody, D. L. (2018). Multiple forms of discrimination, social status, and telomere length: Interactions within race. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 98, 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.08.012
Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., Gupta, A., Kelaher, M., & Gee, G. (2020). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS ONE, 10(9), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511
Robinson, M. N., & Thomas Tobin, C. S. (2021). Is John Henryism a health risk or resource?: Exploring the role of culturally relevant coping for physical and mental health among Black Americans. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 62(2), 136–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/00221465211009142
Shammas, M. A. (2011). Telomeres, lifestyle, cancer, and aging. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care, 14(1), 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1097/mco.0b013e32834121b1
Spears, I. D., Gorelik, A. J., Norton, S. A., Boudreaux, M. J., Wolk, M. W., Siudzinski, J., Paul, S. E., Cox, M. A., Rogers, C. E., Oltmanns, T. F., Hill, P. L., & Bogdan, R. (2026). Cumulative lifespan stress, inflammation, and racial disparities in mortality between Black and White adults. JAMA Network Open, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.54701
Thames, A. D., Irwin, M. R., Breen, E. C., & Cole, S. W. (2019). Experienced discrimination and racial differences in leukocyte gene expression. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 106, 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.04.016
Torres, L., Geier, T. J., Tomas, C. W., Bird, C. M., Timmer‐Murillo, S., Larson, C. L., & deRoon ‐Cassini, T. A. (2024). Racial discrimination increases the risk for nonremitting posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in traumatically injured Black individuals living in the United States. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 37(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.23051
Tynes, B. M., Maxie-Moreman, A., Hoang, T.-M. H., Willis, H. A., & English, D. (2024). Online racial discrimination, suicidal ideation, and traumatic stress in a national sample of Black adolescents. JAMA Psychiatry, 81(3). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.4961
Wallace, M., Crear-Perry, J., Richardson, L., Tarver, M., & Theall, K. (2017). Separate and unequal: Structural racism and infant mortality in the US. Health & Place, 45, 140–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.03.012
Webb, E. K., Bird, C. M., deRoon-Cassini, T. A., Weis, C. N., Huggins, A. A., Fitzgerald, J. M., Miskovich, T., Bennett, K., Krukowski, J., Torres, L., & Larson, C. L. (2022). Racial discrimination and resting-state functional connectivity of salience network nodes in trauma-exposed Black adults in the United States. JAMA Network Open, 5(1), e2144759. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.44759
Williams, D. R., Lawrence, J. A., & Davis, B. A. (2019). Racism and health: evidence and needed research. Annual Review of Public Health, 40(1), 105–125. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750
Williams, D. R., Priest, N., & Anderson, N. B. (2016). Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: Patterns and prospects. Health Psychology, 35(4), 407–411. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000242
Yip, T. (2015). The effects of ethnic/racial discrimination and sleep quality on depressive symptoms and self-esteem trajectories among diverse adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(2), 419–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0123-x
Yip, T., Cheon, Y. M., Wang, Y., Cham, H., Tryon, W., & El‐Sheikh, M. (2019). Racial disparities in sleep: Associations with discrimination among ethnic/racial minority adolescents. Child Development, 91(3), 914–931. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13234


